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Participatory monitoring (also known as collaborative monitoring, community-based monitoring, locally based monitoring or volunteer monitoring) is the regular collection of measurements or other kinds of data (monitoring), usually of natural resources and biodiversity, undertaken by local people who live in the area being monitored, who rely on local natural resources, and consequently have great local knowledge of those resources. The people involved usually live in communities with considerable social cohesion where they regularly work together on shared projects. Participatory monitoring has emerged as an alternative or addition to professional scientist-executed monitoring.〔Danielsen, F., Balete, D.S., Poulsen, M.K., Enghoff, M., Nozawa, C.M. and Jensen, A.E. 2000. A simple system for monitoring biodiversity in protected areas of a developing country. Biodiversity and Conservation 9: 1671–1705.〕〔ETFRN 2002. Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation of Biodiversity: Internet Workshop and Policy Seminar. Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.〕 Scientist-executed monitoring is often costly and hard to sustain, especially in those regions of the world where financial resources are limited.〔Danielsen, F., Burgess, N.D. and Balmford, A. 2005a. Monitoring matters: examining the potential of locally-based approaches. Biodiversity and Conservation 14: 2507–2542.〕 Moreover, scientist-executed monitoring can be logistically and technically difficult and is often perceived to be irrelevant by resource managers and the local communities. Involving local people and their communities in monitoring is often part of the process of sharing the management of land and resources with the local communities. It is connected to the devolution of rights and power to the locals.〔Funder, M., Danielsen, F., Ngaga, Y., Nielsen, M.R. and Poulsen, M.K. 2013. Reshaping conservation: The social dynamics of participatory monitoring in Tanzania’s community-managed forests. Conservation and Society 11: 218–232.〕 Aside from potentially providing high-quality information,〔JJones, J.P.G., Andriamarovolona, M.M., Hockley, N., Gibbons, J.M. and Milner-Gulland, E.J. 2008. Testing the use of interviews as a tool for monitoring trends in the harvesting of wild species. Journal of Applied Ecology 45: 1205–1212.〕〔Luzar, J.B., Silvius, K.M., Overman, H., Giery, S.T., Read, J.M. and Fragoso, J.M.V. 2011. Large-scale environmental monitoring by indigenous people. BioScience 61: 771–781.〕〔Danielsen, F., Jensen, P.M., Burgess, N.D., Altamirano, R., Alviola, P.A., Andrianandrasana, H., Brashares, J.S., Burton, A.C., Coronado, I., Corpuz, N., Enghoff, M., Fjeldså, J., Funder, M., Holt, S., Hübertz, H., Jensen, A.E., Lewis, R., Massao, J., Mendoza, M.M., Ngaga, Y., Pipper, C.B., Poulsen, M.K., Rueda, R.M., Sam, M., Skielboe, T., Sørensen, M. and Young, R. 2014a. A multi-country assessment of tropical resource monitoring by local communities. BioScience 64: 236–251.〕 participatory monitoring can raise local awareness and build the community and local government expertise that is needed for addressing the management of natural resources.〔〔Constantino, P.A.L., Carlos, H.S.A., Ramalho, E.E., Rostant, L., Marinelli, C., Teles, D., Fonseca-Junior, S.F. et al. 2012. Empowering local people through community-based resource monitoring: a comparison of Brazil and Namibia. Ecology and Society 17(4): 22.〕 Participatory monitoring is sometimes included in terms such as citizen science,〔Bonney, R., Shirk, J.L., Phillips, T.B., Wiggins, A., Ballard, H.L., Miller-Rushing, A.J. and Parrish, J.K. 2014. Next steps for citizen science. Science 343: 1436 –1437.〕 crowd-sourcing, ‘public participation in scientific research’〔Shirk, J.L., Ballard, H.L., Wilderman, C.C., Phillips, T., Wiggins, A., Jordan, R., McCallie, E. et al. 2012. Public participation in scientific research: a framework for deliberate design. Ecology and Society 17(2): 29.〕 and participatory action research. == Definition == The term ‘participatory monitoring’ embraces a broad range of approaches, from self-monitoring of harvests by local resource users themselves, to censuses by local rangers, and inventories by amateur naturalists. The term includes techniques labelled as ‘self-monitoring’,〔Noss A.J., Oetting I. and CueÅL llar R.L. 2005. Hunter self-monitoring by the Isoseno-Guarani in the Bolivian Chaco. Biodivers. Conserv. 14: 2679–2693.〕〔Constantino, P. A. L., R. A. Tavares, J. L. Kaxinawa, F. M. Macário, E. Kaxinawa e A. S. Kaxinawa. 2012. Mapeamento e monitoramento participativo da caça na Kaxinawá da Praia do Carapanã Indigenous Land, Acre, Amazônia Brasileira. In: Sistema de informações geográficas e a conservação da biodiversidade. Paese, A., Uezu, A., Lorini, M. L., Cunha, A. (eds.). Oficina do Texto, São Paulo, Brasil.〕 ranger-based monitoring’,〔Gray M. and Kalpers J. 2005. Ranger based monitoring in the Virunga-Bwindi Region of East-Central Africa: a simple data collection tool for park management. Biodivers. Conserv. 14: 2723–2741.〕 ‘event-monitoring’,〔Stuart-Hill G., Diggle R., Munali B., Tagg J. and Ward D. 2005. The event book system: a community based natural resource monitoring system from Namibia. Biodivers. Conserv. 14: 2611–2631.〕 ‘participatory assessment, monitoring and evaluation of biodiversity’,〔Sheil, D. and Lawrence, A. 2004. Tropical biologists, local people and conservation: new opportunities for collaboration. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 19: 634–638.〕〔Lawrence, A. (Ed.). 2010. Taking Stock of Nature. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK.〕 ‘community-based observing’,〔Alessa, L. et al. 2015. The role of Indigenous science and local knowledge in integrated observing systems: moving toward adaptive capacity indices and early warning systems. Sustainability Science. DOI 10.1007/s11625-015-0295-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11625-015-0295-7〕 and ‘community-based monitoring and information systems’.〔Tebtebba 2013. Developing and Implementing Community‐Based Monitoring and Information Systems: The Global Workshop and the Philippine Workshop Reports. http://tebtebba.org/index.php/all‐resources/category/8‐ books?download=890:developing‐and‐implementing‐cbmis‐the‐global‐workshop‐and‐ the‐philippine‐workshop‐reports.〕 Many of these approaches are directly linked to resource management, but the entities being monitored vary widely, from individual animals and plants,〔〔〔Bennun L., Matiku P., Mulwa R., Mwangi S. and Buckley P. 2005. Monitoring Important Bird Areas in Africa: towards a sustainable and scalable system. Biodivers. Conserv. 14: 2575–2590.〕〔Townsend W.R., Borman A.R., Yiyoguaje E. and Mendua L. 2005. Cofán Indians’ monitoring of freshwater turtles in Zábalo, Ecuador. Biodiversity and Conservation 14: 2743–2755.〕〔Rist J, Milner-Gulland EJ, Cowlishaw G, Rowcliffe M. 2010. Hunter reporting of catch per unit effort as a monitoring tool in a bushmeat harvesting system. Conservation Biology 24: 489–499.〕〔Oldekop JA, Bebbington AJ, Berdel F, Truelove NK, Wiersberg T, et al. 2011. Testing the accuracy of non-experts in biodiversity monitoring exercises using fern species richness in the Ecuadorian Amazon. Biodivers Conserv. 20:2615-26.〕〔Burton 2012〕 through habitats,〔Andrianandrasana H.T., Randriamahefasoa J., Durbin J., Lewis R.E. and Ratsimbazafy J.H. 2005. Participatory ecological monitoring of the Alaotra wetland in Madagascar. Biodivers. Conserv. 14: 2757–2774.〕〔Poulsen M.K. and Luanglath K. 2005. Projects come, projects go: lessons from participatory monitoring in southern Laos. Biodivers. Conserv. 14: 2591–2610〕〔Uychiaoco AJ, Arceo HO, Green SJ, de la Cruz MT, Gaite PA, Alino PM. 2005. Monitoring and evaluation of reef protected areas by local fishers in the Philippines: Tightening the adaptive management cycle. Biodiversity and Conservation 14: 2775–2794〕〔Nagendra H, Ostrom E. 2011. The challenge of forest diagnostics. Ecology and Society 16 (art. 20). (7 November 2013; http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol16/iss2/art20)〕〔NAILSMA (North Australian Indigenous Land and Sea Management Alliance Ltd.). 2014. Looking After Country: The NAILSMA I-Tracker story. NAILSMA, Darwin, NT. goo.gl/Ng29co〕 to ecosystem goods and services.〔Becker, C.D., Agreda, A., Astudillo, E., Constantino, M. and Torres, P. 2005. Community-based surveys of fog capture and biodiversity monitoring at Loma Alta, Ecuador enhance social capital and institutional cooperation. Biodiversity and Conservation 14: 2695–2707〕〔Hockley N.J., Jones J.P.G., Andriahajaina F.B., Manica A., Ranambitsoa E.H. and Randriamboahary J.A. 2005. When should communities and conservationists monitor exploited resources? Biodivers. Conserv. 14: 2795–2806〕〔Topp-Jørgensen, E., Poulsen, M.K., Lund, J.F. and Massao, J.F. 2005. Community-based monitoring of natural resource use and forest quality in montane forests and miombo woodlands of Tanzania. Biodiversity and Conservation 14: 2653–2677.〕 However, all of the approaches have in common that the monitoring is carried out by individuals who live in the monitored places and rely on local natural resources, and that local people or local government staff are directly involved in formulation of research questions, data collection, and (in most instances) data analysis, and implementation of management solutions based on research findings.〔〔Kennett, R., Danielsen, F. and Silvius, K.M. 2015. Conservation management: Citizen science is not enough on its own. Nature 521:261〕 Participatory monitoring is included in the term ’participatory monitoring and management’ which has been defined as "approaches used by local and Indigenous communities, informed by traditional and local knowledge, and, increasingly, by contemporary science, to assess the status of resources and threats on their land and advance sustainable economic opportunities based on the use of natural resources".〔 term ’participatory monitoring and management’ is particularly used in tropical, Arctic and developing regions, where communities are most often the custodians of valuable biodiversity and extensive natural ecosystems. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Participatory monitoring」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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